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In: Van Driesche, R., et al., 2002, Biological Control of Invasive Plants in the Eastern United States, USDA Forest Service Publication FHTET-2002-04, 413 p. P. australis was an uncommon component of marshes in New England several thousand years ago. Recent genetic evidence (Saltonstall, 2002) has now confirmed that a more aggressive genotype has been introduced to North America (Metzler and Rosza, 1987; Tucker, 1990; Mikkola and Lafontaine, 1994; Besitka, 1996, Orson, 1999), probably in the late 1800s along the Atlantic coast (Saltonstall, 2002). The distribution of the native genotypes is not well known but they appear more common in the western part of the continent (Saltonstall, 2002). At present, invasive P. australis occurs throughout the whole of the United States, except Alaska and Hawaii; however, problems caused by non-indigenous P. australis are most severe along the Atlantic coast.
Nature of Damage Economic damage. Phragmites australis is largely a weed of natural areas and direct economic damage has not been assessed or reported. Ecological damage. Phragmites australis invasion alters the structure and function of diverse marsh ecosystems by changing nutrient cycles and hydrological regimes (Benoit and Askins, 1999; Meyerson et al., 2000). Dense Phragmites stands in North America decrease native biodiversity and quality of wetland habitat, particularly for migrating waders and waterfowl species (Thompson and Shay, 1989; Jamison, 1994; Marks et al., 1994; Chambers, 1997; Meyerson et al., 2000). A survey of Connecticut marshes showed that rare and threatened bird species in the area were associated with native, short-grass habitats and were excluded by Phragmites invasion (Benoit and Askins, 1999). Extent of losses. Lack of long-term data makes quantification of direct losses difficult. At sites where Phragmites eradication programs have been instigated, such as Primehook National Wildlife Refuge in Delaware, waterfowl abundance has significantly increased following control procedures (G. O’Shea, pers. comm.). Recovery of bird communities after chemical control of P. australis suggests a significant habitat loss due to encroachment by common reed. Geographical Distribution Presently, non-indigenous, invasive P. australis is most abundant along the Atlantic coast and in freshwater and brackish tidal wetlands of the northeastern United States, and as far south as North Carolina. It occurs in all eastern states and populations are expanding, particularly in the Midwest. Background Information On The Pest Plant Taxonomy Phragmites australis is a perennial monocot in the family Poaceae, tribe Arundineae (Clayton, 1967). The genus Phragmites includes four species, with P. australis being distributed worldwide; Phragmites japonicus Steudel being found in Japan, China, and eastern areas of Russia; Phragmites karka (Retz.) Trin. found in tropical Africa, Southeast Asia, and northern Australia; and Phragmites mauritianus Kunth in tropical Africa and the islands of the Indian Ocean (Darlington and Wylie, 1955; Clayton, 1967; Tucker, 1990; Besitka, 1996). The status of the eleven recently discovered native haplotypes (Saltonstall, 2002) needs further evaluation. All species show high phenotypic plasticity making species identification difficult (Clayton, 1967). Biology Phragmites australis is a clonal grass species with woody hollow culms that can grow up to 6 m in height (Haslam, 1972). Karyotypic studies in North America have identified different ploidy levels with populations of 3x, 4x, and 6x plants, but with 4x being the dominant chromosome number in modern day populations (Besitka, 1996). Leaves are lanceolate, often 20 to 40 cm long and 1 to 4 cm wide. Flowers develop by mid-summer and are arranged in tawny spikelets with many tufts of silky hair. P. australis is wind pollinated but self-incompatible (Tucker, 1990). Seed set is highly variable and occurs through fall and winter and may be important in colonization of new areas. Germination occurs in spring on exposed moist soils. Vegetative spread by below-ground rhizomes can result in dense clones with up to 200 stems/m2 (Haslam, 1972). Analysis of Related Native Plants in the Eastern United States Phragmites australis is a member of the Poaceae with more than 100 genera represented in the northeastern United States alone (Gleason and Cronquist, 1991). The closest related species to P. australis is Arundo donax L., an invasive introduced species. The most important genera to consider for their wildlife value include species of Typha, Spartina, Carex, Scirpus, Eleocharis, Juncus, Arundinaria, and Calamagrostis. History of Biological Control Efforts in the Eastern United States Research in North America and Europe began in 1998 with literature and field surveys for potential control agents (Tewksbury et al., 2002) Area of Origin of Weed The current distribution of P. australis includes Europe, Asia, Africa, America, and Australia (Holm et al., 1977), however, the origin of the species is unclear. The rapid spread of Phragmites in recent years in North America has led wetland ecologists to believe that the species may be introduced. However, Phragmites rhizomes were found in North American peat cores dated 3,000 years old (Orson, 1999). Several different hypotheses have been proposed to explain the recent population explosion in North America, including the introduction of more aggressive European genotypes about 100 years ago (Besitka, 1996; Orson, 1999). The absence of specialized North American herbivores of P. australis in North America and the lack of wildlife use are indications for the introduced status of the species (Tewksbury et al., 2002). Saltonstall (2002) has compared historic and present day populations of P. australis from North America and other continents using advanced genetic techniques. Her results show that present day populations in North America consist of a mixture of eleven non-invasive native North American haplotypes and one distinctive introduced invasive (most likely European) haplotype (Saltonstall, 2002). The status of an additional haplotype (either native or introduced) growing along the Gulf of Mexico is still unresolved (Saltonstall, 2002). Areas Surveyed for Natural Enemies In 1997, literature surveys and limited field surveys in the northeastern Unites States began. Work in Europe started in 1998 with additional literature surveys and the estblishment of field sites in Hungary, Austria, Germany, and Switzerland (Schwarzländer and Häfliger, 1999). Natural Enemies Found Literature and field surveys (in the northeastern United States and eastern Canada) reveal that currently 26 herbivores are known to attack P. australis in North America (Tewksbury et al., 2002). Many of these species were accidentally introduced during the last decades; only five are potentially native (Tewksbury et al., 2002). Only the Yuma skipper, Ochlodes yuma (Edwards) (a species distributed throughout the western United States); a dolichopodid fly in the genus Thrypticus; and a gall midge, Calamomyia phragmites (Felt), are considered native and monophagous on P. australis (Gagné, 1989; Tewksbury et al., 2002). The native broad-winged skipper, Poanes viator (Edwards), has recently included P. australis in its diet (Gochfeld and Burger, 1997) and the skipper is now common in Rhode Island (Tewksbury et al., 2002). The dolichopodid fly and the gall midge C. phragmites are widespread in North America but appear to be restricted to native North American haplotypes of P. australis (Blossey, unpub. data). The European moth Apamea unanimis (Hübner) was first collected in North America in 1991 near Ottawa, Canada (Mikkola and Lafontaine, 1994). Larvae feed on leaves of P. australis and species of Phalaris and Glyceria. A second European species, Apamea ophiogramma (Esper), was first reported in 1989 from British Columbia, Canada (Troubridge et al., 1992), but it has now been found in New York, Vermont, Quebec, and New Brunswick (Mikkola and Lafontaine, 1994). Additional species such as several shoot flies in the genus Lipara, Dolichopodidae; a rhizome feeding noctuid moth Rhizedra lutosa (Hübner); the gall midge Lasioptera hungarica Möhn; the aphid Hyalopterus pruni (Geoffr.); and the wasp Tetramesa phragmitis (Erdös), Eurytomidae – all appear widespread. The mite Steneotarsonemus phragmitidis (Schlechtendal) was recently discovered in the Finger Lakes Region of New York and the rice-grain gall midge Giraudiella inclusa (Frauenfeld) in Massachusetts, Connecticut, New Jersey, and New York (Blossey and Eichiner, unpub.). In Europe, at least 140 herbivore species have been reported feeding on P. australis, some causing significant damage (Schwarzländer and Häfliger, 1999; Tewksbury et al., 2002). About 50% of these species are considered Phragmites specialists (Schwarzländer and Häfliger, 1999) and almost 40% of the species are monophagous. Lepidoptera (45 species) and Diptera (55) are the most important orders. More than 70% of all these herbivores attack leaves and stems of P. australis, and only five of the monophagous species feed in rhizomes (Tewksbury et al., 2002). Of the 151 herbivore species known from outside North America, already 21 (13.9%) have been accidentally introduced (Tewksbury et al., 2002). Host Range Tests and Results Rhizedra lutosa larvae were exposed to a number of ornamental grasses (Balme, 2000). The larvae did not feed on any of the species tested, and no host specificity screening has been conducted for any other herbivores of P. australis. Releases Made No deliberate releases have been made, but at least 21 species feeding on common reed have been accidentally introduced to North America (Tewksbury et al., 2002). Biology and Ecology of Key Natural Enemies The following is a summary of life history and ecology on potential natural enemies associated with P. australis in North America and Europe. Species included in this list were selected according to their abundance and potential impact on plant performance. Species marked by an asterix have already invaded North America. Lipara rufitarsis* Loew, L. similis* Schiner,
The genus Lipara Meigen is restricted to the Palaearctic region, and all nine presently recognized species use P. australis as their sole host plant (Beschovski, 1984). The European species L. lucens, L. rufitarsis, L. similis, and L. pullitarsis cause more or less distinct apical shoot galls, in which the mature larvae overwinter (Chvala et al., 1974). A single larva develops per shoot (De Bruyn, 1994). All four species are widely distributed through Europe with variable but usually low (5 to 10%) attack rates (Schwarzländer and Häfliger, 1999). United States, particularly of L. similis, can approach 80% (Balme, 2000; Blossey and Eichiner, unpub.).
The different Lipara species can be best distinguished using criteria of gall morphology and larval overwintering habit. Attack by L. lucens causes stunting of 10 to 13 internodes and larvae penetrate the growing point to feed in a gall chamber. Attack by L. rufitarsis causes stunting of only five to six internodes with larvae also penetrating the growing point. Attack by L. pullitarsis causes stunting of apical internodes and gall formation similar to L. rufitarsis, but larvae overwinter above the growing point. Attack by L. similis causes only slight alterations of shoot diameters. Similar to L. pullitarsis, L. similis larvae feed and overwinter above the growing point of attacked shoots. Attack by all Lipara species can easily be identified by dried up apical leaves and the lack of inflorescences on infested shoots. Pupation of larvae occurs in early spring and flies emerge in May.
Archanara geminipuncta (Haworth) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) This shoot-boring moth has been extensively researched in Europe because of the damage it does to reed beds. Larvae mine the shoots in spring and early summer; adults fly in the summer and eggs overwinter. Mined portions of shoots and the growing point wilt after attack. A single larva needs several shoots to complete development, and attack rates of more than 50% of stems are common. Attack by this shoot-boring moth can reduce shoot height by 50 to 60% and result in significant reed dieback. Phragmataecia castaneae (Hübner) (Lepidoptera: Cossidae) This large moth needs two years to complete its development, which occurs at the base of the shoot and in the rhizomes. Moths fly in summer and females lay 200 to 400 eggs. Larvae may move from shoot to shoot as they look for new food during their development. Larvae can be found in both dry reed stands and those that are permanently flooded. Chilo phragmitella (Hübner) (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) Like P. castaneae, this species mines shoots and roots of Phragmites. Larvae are active in the summer; older larvae mine deeper parts of the rhizome and are difficult to detect. Infested shoots remain small and wilt. Schoenobius gigantella (Denis and Schiffermüller) (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) Evaluation of Project Outcomes Establishment and Spread of Agents No deliberate introductions of biological control agents have been made. The diversity of accidentally introduced Phragmites herbivores is highest closest to New York City (Blossey and Eichiner, unpub.). This suggests that a major area for the introduction of arthropods is the harbor. Various introduced species associated with Phragmites appear to be spreading from New York City along highways, rivers, and the coastline. Suppression of Target Weed No work on evaluating the effects of these European herbivores on Phragmites has yet been done in North America. However, the recent discovery of several such species in the northeast provides an opportunity to measure the influence of these organisms on Phragmites performance. Recommendations for Future Work Genetic analysis (Saltonstall, 2002) has confirmed the presence of native North American genotypes of P. australis. Promising biological control agents have been identified in Europe and their impact and host specificity need to be determined experimentally. Native North American genotypes of P. australis do exist, therefore it will be extremely important to assess whether the potential control agents show any peferences among different genotypes. The fact that some native North American herbivores appear restricted to native P. australis genotypes and that some accidentally introduced European insect herbivores do not attack native North American genotypes (Blossey, unpub. data) is some indication that genotype-specific biological control may be possible. However, detailed investigations as to preference and performance of potential biological control agents on native North American and introduced European genotypes have to be conducted. A large number of European herbivorous insects that are specific to P. australis have become accidentally established in North America. Some of these insects species are widespread and abundant in the northeastern United States. However, we do not know their full distribution, habitat requirements, or potential control value. In particular, gall flies in the genus Lipara and the rhizome-feeding moth R. lutosa are widespread, although only the Lipara species reach high abundances. These observations should form the basis for a more intensive analysis of the ecology and impact of these species and their potential to control the spread or reduce existing invasive populations of P. australis. It needs to be determined why R. lutosa does not build up to higher population levels and whether the attack by the gall flies or R. lutosa can stop the spread of Phragmites or weaken existing stands. Before any of these species may be used as biological control agents, their host specificity or impact on native P. australis must be determined. We plan to establish a web-based system to collect information from land managers about the distribution of the various reed insects already present and spreading within the United States. The web site will feature pictures and drawings of the accidentally introduced insects and their feeding damage. For most of these organisms, their gross appearance or damage is distinctive, allowing non-entomologists to participate in data collection. This system will allow the production of distribution maps, and potentially will be able to track the spread of these organisms across the continent. References Balme, G. R. 2000. Insects on Phragmites australis. M. S. thesis, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, Ben-Dov, Y. 1994. A Systematic Catalogue of the Mealybugs of the World (Homoptera: Coccoidea: Benoit, L. K. and R. A. Askins. 1999. Impact of the spread of Phragmites on the distribution of birds in Beschovski, V. L. 1984. A zoogeographic review of Palaearctic genera of Chloropidae (Diptera) in view of Besitka, M. A. R. 1996. An ecological and historical study of Phragmites australis along the Atlantic Chambers, R. M. 1997. Porewater chemistry associated with Phragmites and Spartina in a Connecticut Chambers, R. M., L. A. Meyerson, and K. Saltonstall. 1999. Expansion of Phragmites australis into Chvala, M., J. Doskocil, J. H. Mook, and V. Pokorny. 1974. The genus Lipara Meigen (Diptera, Clayton, W. D. 1967. Studies in the Gramineae: XIV. Kew Bulletin 21: 111-117.
Darlington, C. D. and De Bruyn, L. 1994. Lifecycle strategies in a guild of dipteran gallformers on the common reed, pp. Gagné, R. J. 1989. The Plant-Feeding Gall Midges of North America. Cornell University Press, Ithaca, Gleason, H. A. and A. Cronquist. 1991. Manual of Vascular Plants of the Northeastern United States Gochfeld, M. and J. Burger. 1997. Butterflies of New Jersey. Rutgers University Press, New Brunswick, Haslam, S. M. 1972. Biological flora of the British Isles, no. 128. Phragmites communis Trinidad Holm, L. G., D. L. Plucknett, J. V. Pancho, and J. P. Herberger. 1977. The World’s Worst Weeds: Jamison, K. 1994. Rx for Delaware’s northern wetlands. Outdoor Delaware Fall, 1994, 4-9. Kosztarab, M. 1996. Scale insects of Northeastern North America. Special Publication Number 3. Krause, L. H. 1996. Terrestrial insects associated with Lythrum salicaria, Phragmites australis, and Marks, M., B. Lapin, and J. Randall. 1994. Phragmites australis (P. communis): Threats, management, McCabe, T. L. and D. F. Schweitzer. 1991. Rhizedra lutosa (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) newly introduced Metzler, K., and R. Rosza. 1987. Additional notes on the tidal wetlands of the Connecticut River. Meyerson, L. A., K. Saltonstall, L. Windham, E. Kiviat, and S. Findlay. 2000. A comparison of Mikkola, K. and J. D. Lafontaine. 1994. Recent introductions of riparian noctuid moths from the Orson, R. A. 1999. A paleoecological assessment of Phragmites australis in New England tidal Sabrosky, C. W. 1958. A Phragmites gall-maker new to North America (Diptera, Chloropidae). Saltonstall, K. 2002. Cryptic invasion by a non-native genotype of Phragmites australis into North Schwarzländer, M. and P. Häfliger. 1999. Evaluating the potential for biological control of Phragmites Skuhrava, M. and Skuhravy, V. 1981. Die Gallmücken (Cecidomyiidae, Diptera) des Schilfes Tewksbury, L., R. Casagrande, B. Blossey, P. Häfliger, and M. Schwarzländer. 2002. Potential for Thompson, D. J. and J. M. Shay. 1989. First-year response of a Phragmites marsh community to Troubridge, J. T., S. M. Fitzpatrick, and J. D. Lafontaine. 1992. Apamea ophiogramma (Esper), a Tscharntke, T. 1992. Fragmentation of Phragmites habitats, minimum viable population size, habitat Tucker, G. C. 1990. The genera of Arundinoidea (Gramineae) in the southeastern United States. Journal U.S. Department of Agriculture. 1999. Reviewer’s manual for the Technical Advisory Group for Biological Wapshere, A. J. 1989. A testing sequence for reducing rejection of potential biological control agents of [ Contents ] [ Previous ] [ Next ] |
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The Bugwood Network and Forestry Images Image Archive and Database Systems The University of Georgia - Warnell School of Forestry and Natural Resources and College of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences - Dept. of Entomology Last updated on Thursday, July 19, 2018 at 01:38 PM Questions and/or comments to the |